History Extended Essay

History Extended Essay 20th Century Stalinist Architecture How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world 1947-1957? On the Cover (Figure 1) – Kotelnicheskaya Embankment residential complex dominates over the Kremlin Cathedrals in Moscow’s skyline. 1. Abstract Stalin’s Seven Sister buildings (Vysotki) irreversibly transformed the vast skyline of Moscow, and ultimately aided Stalin in his pursuit of a contemporary European city after World War II.Although these massive architectural masterpieces hold a legacy that resonates magnificence throughout the architectural aspects of Stalin’s era, the Seven Sisters hold a controversial history behind them, considering the fact that the housing needs of the proletariat were disregarded after 1945 up until Khrushchev’s epoch. I have thus decided to investigate the means in which Stalinà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Seven Sister buildings transformed Moscow into a modern city whilst displaying Soviet communism to the world.Therefore, the subsequent question that comprehensively investigates the social, political and economic impacts of the Seven Sisters is: How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947-1957? This paper will investigate all the different aspects surrounding the creation of the Vysotki, and analyze the subsequent impacts on Soviet culture.This will be achieved by analyzing various primary and secondary sources regarding the Seven Sisters, along with a comprehensive interpretation of a lecture given in the Moscow Shchusev Architectural Museum that I attended on October 10th, 2012. Although the progression of Moscow into a contemporary European city is characterized by numerous different aspects, including the Moscow metro system and othe r forms of Stalinist architecture, the Seven Sisters ultimately defined Moscow with an architectural legacy that remains evident to present day.Therefore, Stalin’s Vysotki played a significant role in the creation of Moscow into a contemporary city, and presented Soviet Communism in Russia with architectural grandeur and magnificence. Abstract Word Count: 271 2. Introduction How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947 to 1957? In order to conceptualize the political, economic and social status of the Soviet Union after World War II, it is essential to evaluate the impact of the war on the USSR in multiple aspects.In 1945, while the Red Army controlled all of Eastern Europe and occupied such cities as Riga, Vilnius, Tallinn, Sofia, Budapest, Prague, Vienna and Warsaw, much of Russia’s European cities lay destroyed from 4 years of war . The Soviet population suffered an estimated 25 million deaths during the course of the war; a statistic that significantly exceeds the number of deaths of any other country in the world during the war. Similar to the decimation of its population, the Soviet Union’s economy was substantially depleted after the war.Approximately one fourth of Russia’s capital resources were destroyed, subsequently causing a dramatic decrease in the Soviet Union’s industrial and agricultural output, contrary to the output goals set forth by the Five Year Plans. On the other hand, the political status of the Soviet government had relatively positive prospects, as the Soviet Union was virtually the only power in Continental Europe to emerge from the war with the same political regime it had at the start of the war.Stalin remained in power throughout the course of the war, and essentially continued his oppressive rule after 1945, sending national minorities and even Soviet prisoners of war suspected of supporting fascism to mass exile. Despite the economic depression of the Soviet Union after World War II, Joseph Stalin thought the USSR needed a strategy to glorify its capital, Moscow, to celebrate the great victory and send a message to its former allies who were rapidly becoming its geopolitical rivals – the US and Western European Allies.Stalin’s architectural ideology at this point was not to resolve the crushing housing crisis and rebuild the devastated nation, but to spend a major portion of government funding on the building of what would become Moscow’s Seven Sister buildings, or Vysotki (literally translated as â€Å"high-rise buildings†). The original planning for the Seven Sisters was based on Boris Iofan’s prize-winning plan for the Palace of Soviets building, a grand political edifice that was meant to exceed the Empire State Building in overall height.Essentially, the creation of the Vysotki would allow Stalin t o leave his own personal imprint on the city’s skyline, and to rival many other world powers at the time – such as Great Britain and the United States, which had their own prized architectural landmarks recognized the world over. While the Palace of Soviets was never built, its construction repeatedly delayed by the onset of the war and diversion of steel to the munitions and weapons factories, the process did leave an indelible imprint on the city, as the monumental Cathedral of Christ the Savior was torn down to make room for the Palace. . Background Information Figure 2 – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Figure 2 – Ministry of Foreign Affairs The erection of the Vysotki started in 1947, two years after the end of World War II. The prospective plans for the creation of the Seven Sisters included three ministries, three hotels and one multi-purpose governmental building. In terms of location, the general plan for the placement of the buildings was to arrange the Seven Sisters in a circle, surrounding the center of Moscow.This plan was done to aesthetically balance the skyline of Moscow, as most of the buildings in the city at the time were at most six or seven stories in height. Strategically placing these huge, innovative structures evenly throughout the city would give Moscow a new aura to it after the war, and would essentially transform Moscow into a modern European city. The first of the Seven Sisters to be finished was the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building (see Figure 2), which was built from 1947 to 1954. The main architects behind this building were V. G. Gelfreih  and  A. B.Minkus, and the creation of this building ultimately set the benchmark for the next six Vysotki, as it stood out in the city with both magnificence and its grand scale. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs building had certain stylistic features that influenced the plans for the other six Vysotki, such as obelisks in the main entrance, the Soviet hammer an d sickle on the sides of the building, and the massive spire on top of the central tower. The specific use of the hammer and sickle symbol on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building suggests the Soviet Union’s strength, as it projected the power of the Soviet diplomacy world over.The building reached a total of 172 meters, including 27 stories, making it the tallest building in Moscow at the time. The second of the ministries, after the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, is the Red Gates (Krasniye Vorota) administrative building. Designed by Alexei Dushkin, this administrative building is 133 meters tall, containing 24 usable floors. The method in which this Vysotka was built is particularly innovative, as Dushkin proposed erecting the building initially tilted to one side, so that the weak soil of Moscow would not have a negative impact on the structural stability of the building.More than 200 holes were drilled and filled with ice under the foundation of the building, to maintai n the soil’s strength while the building was being constructed. As this Vysotka concluded construction, the ice was deliberately melted and the tilted building shifted into an upright state, in which it currently stands. The purpose of this building was to house the Ministry of Railways, with whose officials Alexei Dushkin himself cooperated during the design and construction. Dushkin is known mostly for his work on the Moscow Metro stations; however, the Ministry of Railways holds a well-respected place in his architectural legacy.Although the initial plans for the Seven Sisters included three ministry buildings, only two were built, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Railways. The third ministry building was replaced by the Moscow State (Lomonosov) University building, upon Stalin’s demand. Drafted by Boris Iofan and inaugurated in 1953, the Lomonosov University building is 236 meters tall, with 36 floors. The sheer magnitude of this building dominat ed the Moscow skyline in its early years and is visible from many points of the city to this day. It still holds the title of being the world’s largest educational building.In this respect, Stalin partially achieved one of his objectives: the recognition of Moscow as a contemporary European city on a global scale. 4. Influences of Stalinist Architecture In order to analyze the effect of the Seven Sisters on the transition of Moscow to a contemporary European city, it is essential to establish Stalinist Architecture as a short-lived architectural style that experienced a definite starting point and definite end. This aspect of Stalinist architecture is specifically unique, as other styles of architecture are typically dispersed throughout long periods of history, without defined start and end dates.Therefore, the defined beginning of Stalinist architecture, sometimes referred to as Stalinist Gothic or Socialist Classicism, originated in 1933, with Boris Iofan’s design f or the massive Palace of Soviets building. Throughout a defined 20 year time period, Socialist Classicism reigned dominant in the Soviet Union as the preferred style of architecture. However, in 1955, two years after Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev issued a decree â€Å"On Excesses in Architecture† that deemed Stalinist architecture extinct and began the start of a new architectural age in Moscow and the rest of the Soviet Union.Khrushchev’s preferred style of architecture, compared to Stalin’s love for architectural magnificence and grandiose Roman Empire inspired design, was significantly more conservative, as Khrushchev and his administration focused on a pragmatic solution to the lack of housing for the masses in the Soviet Union. The architecture in Moscow after 1955 was therefore relatively simplistic and practical, and was ultimately defined by the khrushchyovka, 5 story, identical, pre-fabricated apartment buildings meant to house a significant amount of families in relatively tight quarters.Named after Khruschev himself, the key element of these buildings was the rapid production of their concrete panels in manufacturing plants and rapid assembly on site. The intent of these buildings was to resolve the housing shortage rapidly, as their life span was projected as 40 years – an architectural and construction strategy whose impact is now being acutely felt in modern Russia, as these building are now crumbling and require replacement.Figure 3 – Boris Iofan’s winning design for the never-built Palace of Soviets – Recreated in 3D Max as a modern rendering of what the building would look like if it were constructed20. Figure 3 – Boris Iofan’s winning design for the never-built Palace of Soviets – Recreated in 3D Max as a modern rendering of what the building would look like if it were constructed20. Shifting to the influences on Socialist Classicism as an architectural style, it is essential to consider the effect of Ancient Greek and Roman style on Soviet Architects from 1933 to 1955.As Boris Iofan’s winning design for the Palace of Soviets building essentially defined the boundaries of Stalinist architecture, Iofan’s individual influences must be taken into consideration (see Figure 3). After visiting New York, Chicago, Rome and Berlin, Iofan remarked in an issue of the Soviet newspaper Pravda that â€Å"wherever I [Iofan] might travel, whatever I might see, I approached everything from a particular point of view: what of all this has to be ‘taken home’ to the Soviet Union†.Therefore, Iofan’s ideology essentially reflects upon Stalinist architecture with influences from American, Italian (subsequently Roman), and German architecture. Although Stalin marveled at the Seven Sisters and Iofan’s Palace of Soviets plan, he ultimately contradicted himself and disregarded Iofan’s work as being too â€Å"cos mopolitan† (Western-influenced) and lacking stylistic features individual to the Soviet Union. 5. Relevance of Stalinist ArchitectureIn order to assess the relevance of Stalinist architecture between 1945-1957, it is important to put the events of the Cold War into context. First of all, tension between the United States and the Soviet Union continuously rose from 1945 to 1957, starting with the disagreements between the USA and the USSR at the Yalta conference in February 1945 and the Potsdam conference in July 1945. For instance, at the Yalta conference, Roosevelt and Churchill did not accept Stalin’s proposal to annex Eastern Poland.Furthermore, at the Potsdam conference, Stalin promised free elections past the Oder-Neisse line. However, free elections were never held and the Soviet government eventually persecuted Polish nationalists. In terms of economic reconstruction, the Soviet Union had joined the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1944. Ho wever, when the Soviet Union applied for a $6 billion loan from the United States, America immediately imposed conditions on the loan.These conditions included the opening of eastern European markets to American products, which in effect reflected the â€Å"dollar diplomacy† strategy of the United States – using its economic power and intact industry to reach its geopolitical goals on the devastated European continent. Stalin’s reaction to the forced conditions on the six billion dollar loan was undoubtedly negative. However, the Soviet Union was in great need of funding after its economy was significantly depleted after the war.However, Stalin had controversial aims as to what would be done with all government funding regarding the reconstruction of Russia after World War II. With millions of people deceased and hundreds of thousands of homes destroyed, it is argued by many historians that the building of Khrushchyovka, small and simplistic residential building s built to maximize housing space and housing multiple families in communal apartments, would more rapidly reconstruct Russia after the war.However, Stalin focused more on the creation of the Vysotki rather than Khrushchyovka, thus using a substantially larger portion of the government’s money on expensive, grand buildings, yet not spending enough on building pragmatic housing solutions that would have helped a much larger share of Soviet population. For example, the entire city of Stalingrad took approximately 2 billion Russian rubles to completely reconstruct after the war, however in comparison, the Moscow State Lomonosov University building took about 2. 6 billion Russian rubles alone, approximating 415 million British pounds in contemporary monetary terms.Stalin’s method of spending billions of rubles on the building of the Seven Sisters was immensely controversial. Nonetheless, while he remained in power very few people dared to oppose any of his decisions or his architectural ideology. In other words, up until March 1953, when Joseph Stalin died, Stalin’s cult of personality ultimately undermined any attempt to consider spending less governmental funds on the creation of the Vysotki. Public opinion after Stalin’s death was split, as one side favored the Seven Sisters, claiming that the new high-rise buildings essentially beautified the capital of Soviet Russia.Many others agreed with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that Stalin’s spending spree on a few grand buildings did not benefit the Soviet Union and ultimately did more damage than good. One simple reason to criticize the Seven Sister project is that two of the grand buildings were built as hotels – Leningradskaya and Ukraine – catering to foreign tourists. However, the Cold War tensions slowed any tourism from the West to a trickle and the two hotels stood largely vacant, while millions of Russians struggled without adequate housing, their ho mes destroyed in the war. 6.Incorporation of the Seven Sisters into the City of Moscow In the architectural realm of the Soviet Union, the main project was to rebuild Moscow in an innovative and idealistically planned manner. This massive project to rebuild Moscow was placed in the hands of the Communist Party’s Central Committee, and in June 1931, a resolution was generated that essentially provided the guidelines of how each city was going to be rebuilt. The Union of Soviet Architects subsequently utilized these plans to determine the amounts of funding to be spent on the rebuilding of each Soviet city.Although the plans to reconstruct the city of Leningrad were considered the most prominent, the majority of funding was given to Moscow, as it was the nation’s capital. Therefore, the city of Moscow was to be deemed as the ideal â€Å"socialist city†, a utopia that reflected the ideology of Socialism and conveyed the positive link between architectural grandeur and Soviet achievements in all other realms of life – education, government, science, industry and the arts. However this model of a â€Å"socialist city† contained numerous ironies, due to the General Plan for Moscow’s components.The plan envisioned a relatively non-industrial landscape, as factories and other industrial plants were to be banned in central Moscow and mass housing (Kommunalka) significantly reduced. These plans, in effect, resembled the typical contemporary city of a capitalist society, such as the United States. Considering the incorporation of the Seven Sisters into Moscow in aesthetic terms, the general plans for rebuilding Moscow called for the Vysotki to be the predominant elements of the city’s skyline.Relating back to the initial plans of the prospective Seven Sisters, the design consisted of the seven high-rise buildings to be aligned in a circular formation. Although this was mainly done in order to balance the skyline of Moscow, thus avoiding the clutter of skyscrapers in a condensed area, Stalin proposed that this circular formation would psychologically and visually coronate the capital city of Russia. The Seven Sisters, would therefore â€Å"crown† Moscow, representing architectural jewels, much like the composition of a literal crown.This idea of crowning Moscow suggests multiple things, including Stalin’s vision for Soviet pride in the victory in World War II and nationalistic ideology, as well as the suggestion that Moscow with its Seven Sisters is superior and more grandiose in contrast with other contemporary European cities. Figure 4 – Moscow State University (Lomonosov University) 7. Moscow’s Progression into a Contemporary European City Figure 5 – Moscow Metro, Kievskaya Station Figure 5 – Moscow Metro, Kievskaya StationWith consideration to Moscow’s gradual progression into a contemporary European city, the Seven Sisters and numerous other archit ectural projects all contributed to the innovative re-imaging and rebuilding of Stalin’s showpiece city. Perhaps one of the most glorious aspects of Muscovite architecture in a way that affects the city’s enormous 15 million population to this day is the Moscow city metro system (see Figure 5). Initially opened for use in 1935, the Moscow Metro was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union.Although not only pragmatic in its use, moving close to 4 million people a day in 2012, the metro system in Moscow is famous for its stations’ architectural and artistic magnificence, complete with bronze chandeliers, marble floors and mosaic and sculptural art works unimaginable in the drab, utilitarian metro systems of New York or London. Furthermore, adding to the practicalities of the new Moscow, the urban planning of the city ultimately helped define Moscow as a modern European city. More specifically, it was the Moscow Master Plan of 1935 that ultimately o utlined the way Moscow was to be reconstructed.Stalin instigated a numerable amount of changes to the urban planning of Moscow, which in turn supported his funding of expensive â€Å"ensemble† projects, thus favoring luxury over the needs of millions of middle and lower class workers in the city. For instance, city blocks were to be increased from 2 hectares up to 15 hectares, and the population density was limited to 400 people per 1 hectare. Additionally, all new buildings were required to be at least 6 stories high, while first-rate streets (embankments) had to be 10 or 14 stories high.These new rules effectively banned the production of inexpensive and mass constructed housing units, as well as single-family houses. 8. Conclusion Figure 6 – Triumph Palace Figure 6 – Triumph Palace When evaluating the city of Moscow from an aesthetic point of view, it is the Seven Sisters that generally stand out most prominently among the vast skyline of Moscow. The Vysotki did not only leave a strong visual impact on the city, they also left both an architectural and social legacy that has proven to influence modern architecture throughout the world.There are numerous positive and negative impacts caused by the building of the Seven Sisters, which ultimately define the legacy of the massive Stalinist high-rises. First of all, Stalin’s Vysotki delivered a newfound architectural magnificence into the capital city of Moscow. With influences from Ancient Greek and Roman architecture, the Seven Sisters gave the city a luxuriously grand aura. The stylistic features of the Seven Sister buildings have been repeated several times in modern architecture globally, thus proving to be an influential legacy left by the Vysotki.For instance, the Triumph Palace in Moscow, built in 2004, takes the architectural magnificence of the Vysotki and converts the features into a modern representation of a Seven Sister building (see Figure 6). This massive apartment bui lding purposefully resembles a Seven Sister building, and is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Eighth† Sister. However, relative to the issues challenging the nation at the time of the construction of Stalin’s Seven Sisters, the Vysotki left unanswered the more pragmatic and humanistic problems, as the housing crisis after World War II was not resolved.As mentioned previously, the total funding of the Lomonosov State University building exceeded the total funding for the reconstruction of the entire city of Stalingrad. Of course Stalingrad did not have nearly as many plans for grand buildings as Moscow, however the lack of housing in Stalingrad was resolved much more effectively than in Moscow, in light of a relatively lower need for funding in comparison with the capital city. In terms of Stalin’s architectural preferences, Moscow was to be reconstructed as the ideal socialist city, with all unattractive mass housing units moved to the outskirts of the city.Al though these buildings eventually solved the issue of the lack of housing, the dull nature of the Khrushchyovka was criticized by many, claiming that the buildings constructed under Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev were aesthetically unpleasant. The method of constructing these mass housing units was parodied by the Soviet popular film â€Å"Irony of Fate†, which was produced in 1975, approximately 20 years after the initial implementation of these buildings.When determining the relevance of Stalin’s Seven Sister buildings, the question must be asked: How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947-1957? Although the gradual transformation of Moscow into a modern European city is characterized by various different aspects, such as the urban planning and architecture of Moscow, the conclusion can be made that the Seven Sisters played a sig nificant role in Moscow’s progression.To a large extent, the Vysotki helped define the city of Moscow with an architectural legacy, and also gave Moscow the distinguished individuality that Stalin pushed for. In some aspects, Stalin’s Seven Sisters ultimately gave Moscow what the Khrushchyovka could not, architectural gems that are world-renowned to this present day. Sources: 1. Texts 1. Andreev, EM, et al. , Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922-1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. 2. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press (2001). 3. Kustova, Anna. Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. 4. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. 5. Mark Harrison. â€Å"The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression. † Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. April 2012. Page 2. 6. Kathleen Berton. â€Å"Moscow: An Architectural History. † New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. 7. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A. Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. . William Craft Brumfield. â€Å"Landmarks of Russian Architecture: A Photographic Survey. † Singapore: Gordon and Breach Publishers, 1997. 9. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. 10. Russian: â€Å" 70 †, World Architecture Magazine, no. 14, 2005, . 30–52 (Moscow Metro, 70 Years, pages 30–52) 11. Melvyn P. Leffler, â€Å"Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War†,  International Security, Vol. 11, No. (Summer, 1986), pp. 88–123 12. Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007),  Warlords: An E xtraordinary Re-creation of World War  II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, Da Capo Press. 13. Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007),  From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press. 14. Russian: ? (?) 10 1935 ?. N 1435 â€Å"? † (SNK and the Central Committee of the CPSU. July 10, 1935 N 1435 â€Å"The Master Plan for Reconstruction of Moscow†) 2. Photographs 1. Fig. , Dmitry Chistoprudov, Misty Dawn Over Moscow: Kotelnicheskaya Embankment, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. 2. Fig. 2, Richard Anderson, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009. Photograph. http://www. flickriver. com. 3. Fig. 3, Ilya Ilusenko, Palace of Soviets: The Soviet Union – 3D Max Rendering, May 11, 2012. Own Work. 4. Fig. 4, Dmitry A. Mottl, Lomonosov Moscow State University, September 21, 2012. Photograph. Own Work. 5. Fig. 5, A. Savin, Kievskaya Metro Station, 2010. Photograph. Own Work. 6. Fig. 6, Andreykov, Vikt orenko Street 10, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. ——————————————– 1 ]. Fig. 1, Dmitry Chistoprudov, Misty Dawn Over Moscow: Kotelnicheskaya Embankment, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. [ 2 ]. Mark Harrison. â€Å"The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression. † Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. April 2012. Page 2. [ 3 ]. Andreev, EM, et al. , Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922-1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. [ 4 ]. Stalin, Joseph; Molotov, Vyacheslav; Kaganovich, Lazar; Voroshilov, Kliment; Ordzhonikidze, Sergo; Kuibyshev, Valerian; Yakovlev, Yakov; Grinko, Grigoriy, From the First to the Second Five Year Plan.Moscow: Co-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workers in the U. S. S. R. , 1933 [ 5 ]. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press (2001). [ 6 ]. Kathleen Berton. Moscow: An Architectural History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. Page 237. [ 7 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 8 ]. Kathleen Berton. Moscow: An Architectural History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. Page 237. [ 9 ].Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 10 ]. Fig. 2, Richard Anderson, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009. Photograph. http://www. flickriver. com. [ 11 ]. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. [ 12 ]. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. [ 13 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Mosc ow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 14 ].Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 127. [ 15 ]. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A. Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. Page 66. [ 16 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 17 ]. William Craft Brumfield. â€Å"Landmarks of Russian Architecture: A Photographic Survey. † Singapore: Gordon and Breach Publishers, 1997. Page 231. [ 18 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 216. [ 19 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 20 ]. Fig. 3, Ilya Ilusenko, Palace of Soviets: The Soviet Union – 3D Max Rendering, May 11, 2012. Own Work. [ 21 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 8. [ 22 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 23 ]. Melvyn P. Leffler, â€Å"Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War†,  International Security, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Summer, 1986), pp. 88–123 [ 24 ]. Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007),  Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War  II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, Da Capo Press. Page 285. [ 25 ]. Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007),  From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press.Page 101. [ 26 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 27 ]. Kathleen Berton. â€Å"Moscow: An Architectural History. † New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. [ 28 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 29 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 30 ]. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A.Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. [ 31 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 13. [ 32 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 33 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalin ism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 14. [ 34 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 35 ]. Fig. 4, Dmitry A. Mottl, Lomonosov Moscow State University, September 21, 2012. Photograph. Own Work. [ 36 ]. Fig. 5, A. Savin, Kievskaya Metro Station, 2010. Photograph. Own Work. [ 37 ]. Russian: â€Å" 70 †, World Architecture Magazine, no. 14, 2005, . 30–52 (Moscow Metro, 70 Years, pages 30–52) [ 38 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 216. [ 39 ].Russian: ? (?) 10 1935 ?. N 1435 â€Å"? † (SNK and the Central Committee of the CPSU. July 10, 1935 N 1435 â€Å"The Master Plan for Reconstruct ion of Moscow†) [ 40 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. [ 41 ]. Fig. 6, Andreykov, Viktorenko Street 10, 2011. Photograph. Own Work [ 42 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012.

Bretton Woods Institutions

The world war two had far reaching consequences on the social, economical, technological and political aspects of the main combatants. The worst hit nations included the European nations and Japan. Technological and economical systems of these nations either collapsed or were left in very poor states. There was an inordinate loss of life on a very large scale, additionally, the wanton destruction of property including industries, public and private property was previously unimaginable.As the war subsided, different parties were thinking of establishing a system that would facilitate the reconstruction of the affected economies in Europe and Japan. Indeed, even as the war continued, delegates representing several countries converged in Bretton woods New Hampshire (USA) in 1944 and established the Bretton Woods Agreement. These agreements were aimed at assisting in the reconstruction of the major economic systems ravaged by the war. The delegates signed the Bretton woods agreements in July 1945 and established the IMF, the World Bank and the general agreement on tariffs and trade (GATT).This paper examines the role of Bretton woods institutions in the reconstruction of the European and Asian economies following the end of World war two. The paper especially focuses on the objectives, the role, the achievement and the shortcomings of the World Bank in the post World war two period between 1945 and 1955. Aims and objectives of the World Bank The World Bank was formalized on December 27th 1945 when 28 of the member states ratified the Bretton woods agreement [Milward, A. S. (1984)].The main arm of the World Bank that was most active in the post world war two was the International Bank for reconstruction and development (IBRD). The core aims of the institution are set out on its inceptions were: †¢ To finance reconstruction projects in the countries ravaged by war. This was done through the provision of loans to these economies at very low rates of interest [Nic holas, C. and Toniolo, G. (1996)]. The loans were meant to facilitate reconstruction through investment activities that had high potential of generating income.Some of the areas to which loan money was channeled were the agriculture research and development, areas of human development such as education, health and recreation (Sports). Infrastructural development was also targeted to benefit from the loans since the war had brought most systems to their knees. Roads, railways, Airports, Seaports, Communication networks as well as Electrification networks were rebuilt through World Bank loans. In 1947 the World Bank extended $ 250,000,000 loan to France for reconstruction and this remains the biggest amount of loan extended to a single state [World Bank Webite-www.imf. org/archives]. †¢ To finance the rebuilding of industries in order to promote technological development among the European states and Japan. The post world war two period also provided numerous activities for indus trial growth and development of innovation culture that had been fueled by the war. Areas such as Air industry, weaponry industry, Communication industry as well as the Motor industries among others provided opportunities for investment and development [Axel, D. (2004)]. †¢ To seek ways of raising funds for development by issuing securities in the international financial markets.†¢ To promote private, local and foreign investment that was deemed worthwhile. This was done in collaboration with the particular state’s government as the guarantor of the loan. †¢ To give financial advisory services to member countries. The World Bank endeavored to give these financial services through provision of information and such in the areas of business development and finance [Hanson, J. L. (1972)]. †¢ To give grants as well as reviewing loan status of the member states. †¢ To give loans to fund specific projects.These were projects that were considered vital to the economies of member countries. †¢ To provide monitoring and evaluation services. The World bank indirectly sought to keep an eye on the progress made on the projects that it had founded to ensure that funds were not misappropriated or channeled to other projects not ear marked for funding [Hanson, J. L. (1972)]. The World Bank also took pains to evaluate the effects (economical and environmental) of the projects undertaken to ensure that they did not pose a threat to the people in the long run.Importance of the World Bank and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). When the World Bank became operational in 1946, it had about $10 billion at its disposal for the purpose of giving Developmental loans to war-torn European nations [Ellis, J. (1999)]. The World Bank played an important role in the dispensation of capital that facilitated a fast rate of economic recovery. The World Bank was charged with the responsibility of identifying projects that were vi tal to the particular economy and also to provide the necessary support financial or otherwise for their completion.The formation of the World Bank provided member countries with a channel to pool together resources that enabled them to make speedy progress [Winter, J. M. 1980]. Working closely with the IMF, the World Bank assisted member countries with balance of payment problems and this helped in preventing an economic fiasco similar to the one of the great depression of 1930s[Harold C. L. (2004]. In addition the World Bank was to operate as an independent institution that was managing its own finances as well as its own investment programs.This ensured that it had money to lend to its members and not have to turn to the subscribers for more money every now and then for money to give as loans. By giving money in form of grants, which was not expected back, the World Bank boosted the economies of the needy states hastening the rate of recovery. At the same time the World Bank emba rked on research projects that positioned it strategically in the provision of quality information and advice to guide decision-making. The International Monetary Fund. The International Monetary Fund was established together with the World Bank.Among the stated objectives of the IMF are to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate the expansion of international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, help in the achievement of a common stable and flexible exchange rate and reduce poverty [Lipsey, Richard, G. (1989)]. The IMF was established to help in dealing with the anticipated post World War 2 growth as well as enhancing the same. It came in handy in assisting to reduce imbalances in balance of payment. It also helped in the regulation of the asset reserves of member countries.In recent years the IMF has continued to play an important role especially in helping developing nations to reduce poverty among the population. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Bretton woods strategists also created this. It was formed with the aim of eliminating the existing trade barriers that existed between member countries in order to pave way for a speedy economic integration [Pollard, R. A. 1985]. This was a noble idea but GATT never became an institution but remained a set of agreement the US never ratified.Over the years since the end of World War 2, there have been many GATT talks and resultant agreements called rounds. The most famous is the Uruguay round of 1986 known for its ambitions. It endeavored to increase the GATT reach to new levels. In 1995 the World Trade Organization (WTO) replaced GATT. The WTO is a fully-fledged institution that performs the very purposes for which GATT or International Trade Organization (ITO) was originally designed to perform. European nations post war economic integrationThe Bretton woods agreements were designed to enhance the participation of the member coun tries in international trade through the removal of existing trade barriers [Grogin, R C. (2001)]. The escalation of technological advancement opened new opportunities in industrial developments and the loans offered allowed the member nations to take advantage of the arising opportunities. The allied nations were thus able to strengthen their collective economic dominance [Parillo, M. (2003)]. This was a goal that had been envisioned by the US even before the end of the war [Goldsmith, R.W. (1946)]. Critics of the US have argued that these self-serving motives were the driving force behind the US commitment in helping the European nations. Nevertheless the effects were increased economic integration of the western European economies. The Marshal plan This plan was by a large extent the brainchild of the US state department secretary George Marshall [Charles L. M. (1984)]. It was devised as a ploy to strengthen the allied nations and by extension strengthen the US standing in relati on to the communist force [Hogan, M. J. (1987)].Marshall plan became operational in1947 and was very successful in the four years it was in operation. Through this program $13 billion was dispensed to assist in the economic recovery of several European nations. The U. K, France, Netherlands, Italy and Germany received some of the largest amounts. These economies responded positively such that in less than seven years after the war, the economies were booming [Hardley, A. (1972)]. The Marshall plan contributed in economic integration because it eliminated some previously existing trade barriers [Harrison, M. (1988)]. Role of multilateral institutions in Post war Europe.Keen to prevent any further/future conflict of the World War 2 magnitude, the US oversaw the formation of the United Nations (UN) IN 1945. The other institution formed was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The United Nations was very active in post war period and among the first major contribution was the establishment of the Nation of Israel following the Jewish holocaust [Wallich, Henry Christopher (1955)] Additionally the United Nations was also active in providing humanitarian aid to refugees and all those affected by the war. Many historians associate the role of the United Nation with the speedy economic recovery.Critique Some scholars have criticized the world for being a western tool. By this they imply that World Bank employs economic policies that work in favour of the western countries. The Bank advocates for a free market economy this would mean that economies are fully liberalized. This has the potential of devastating weak economies and give advantage to the strong ones. Other weaknesses include lack of inflexibility in giving loans, delay in intervention usually with negative ramifications and Interference with the sovereignty of some member countries especially the poor nations.Conclusion The Bretton woods institutions played an important role in the reconstruction of the European nations after the world war two. The rate of the economic recovery that was experienced by these nations, would have been impossible to achieve without the intervention of organized an institution to provide support as well as checks and balances that were necessary in the achievement of this growth. Additionally the formation of the Bretton woods institutions allowed these nations to participate fully in the utilization of the opportunities that the existed in the post war period.This resulted in the economic boom, especially in the Western Europe between 1950 and 1970 that saw these nations recapturing lost glory and joining the mainstream economies as important players. However critics like professor Noam Chomsky of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, argue that the World Bank is fulfilling its aims of alleviating poverty and promoting development- but are helping rich nations and individuals get richer, and making it impossible for poor nations ever to pay o ff their debts. Others have held to the argument that the commitment displayed by the U. S.A was just a facade that was meant to mask the real intentions of domineering US ambitions. This might have been true but it does not negate the benefits that were achieved. The multilateral institutions that were mostly founded in the 1940s played a significant role in brokering peace as well as ensuring that systems were in place that would allow for peaceful co-existence between nations . The world Bank continues to play a key role especially in assisting developing nations in areas of governance as well as in offering financial support required to enable them to achieve sustainable development.It is therefore important that the institution continue to adapt to the times in order to remain relevant to the changing needs of these nations. The Weaknesses must be turned to strength if the institution is to maintain the reputation it currently enjoys. References Axel, D. (2004), The Influence o f IMF Programs on the Re-election of Debtor Governments, Economics & Politics 16, 1: 53-75 Charles L. M. (1984). The Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana. New York: Simon and Schuster. Pp 3,5,7-8. Ellis, J.(1999). Brute Force: Allied Strategy and Tactics in the Second World War Goldsmith, R. W. (1946), â€Å"The Power of Victory: Munitions Output in World War II† Military Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1. pp. 69-80; Grogin, R C. (2001) Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991. Lanham, Md. : Lexington Books. Hanson, J. L. (1972). A Textbook of Economics. Macdonald and Evans Ltd, London. 6th Ed pg 501 Harold C. L. (2004). Military Medicine† in Walter Yust edition. 10 Eventful Years Harrison, M.(1988) â€Å"Resource Mobilization for World War II: The U. S. A. , UK, U. S. S. R. , and Germany, 1938-1945† in The Economic History Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 171-192 Hogan, M. J. (1987). The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, an d the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-1952. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. John Maynard Keynes in his speech at the closing plenary session of the Bretton Woods Conference in Donald Moggeridge (ed. ), The Mason, Edward S. ; Asher, Robert E. (1973). The World Bank Since Bretton Woods.Washington, D. C. : The Brookings Institution, 105-107, 124-135. Lipsey, Richard, G. (1989). An Introduction to Positive Economics. English Language Book Society, 7th ed. Pp 7255. Milward, A. S. (1984). The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-51. London: Methuen. Marshall, G. (1947) â€Å"Against Hunger, Poverty, Desperation and Chaos† at a Harvard. (Can be read from http://www. foreignaffairs. org/19970501faessay76399- p0/george-c-marshall-The speech. ) Nicholas, C. and Toniolo, G. (1996). Economic Growth in Europe Since 1945.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 3-5 Parillo, M. (2003), â€Å"The Pacific War† in Richard Jensen et al, eds. Trans-Pacific Relations: Amer ica,Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century pp. 78-117. Pollard, R. A. (1985). Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold war, 1945-1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 8. Wallich, Henry Christopher (1955). Mainsprings of the German Revival. New Haven: Yale University Press,. Pp 123-267 Winter, J. M. â€Å"Demography of the War†, in Dear and Foot, ed. , Oxf Bretton Woods Institutions The Second World War featured a host of nations battling all around the world for supremacy; it was believed that the victor would have the privilege to shape the future of the world and so it seems. The Allies finally emerged victors in 1945; among them were the powers of today, U. S. A. , China, France, U. K, and Russia. Behind them was a host of other States that had show support during the difficult times. In 1945 the Allies had met in Bretton Woods U. S.A and came up with strategies that would ensure that he mistakes that had been made over the years would be avoided; it was in this conference that the Bretton Woods Institutions were formed. Among them were the International Bank for reconstruction and Development (IBRD) today known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The two were formed after a number of states ratified and agreed to the rules as stipulated in the agreement at Bretton Woods (Veseth 2002).The main role of these institutions was to ensure that the mistakes of the past were not repeated; they were to ensure that the trade among nations would flow freely, to stabilize the world’s financial system, and to encourage international investments (Lechner 2009). In other words these institutions were to assist in the reconstruction and development of Europe after the war; many of its signatory members were European States. It was therefore a Western Idea for the Development of capitalist oriented economies.This paper will look at the success of these institutions decades later. Today the two institutions are still there; working towards the development of economies. After their formation the two institutions successfully managed to rejuvenate the European Economy. Europe then went a head and through a series of agreements, starting with the integration within the coal and steel industries, formed the European Commission and later on the European Union was formed. It seeks to establish a common Europe; with a common currency , constitution, economy to mention a few (Veseth 2002).It is therefore correct to say that the Bretton Woods system was successful within Europe as it succeeded jump starting the economies and later on the same economies merged to form a single unit; looking at the objectives, there will always be free flowing trade within EU, by using a single currency to trade within Europe means that the exchange rate is stable thus enabling the Euro to function any where in Europe and finally as it is evident for quit some time the economies of Europe along side those of the world have been stable.To add to this there has been significant growth for quite some time. It is therefore true to say that the strategy worked (Mansbach & Rhodes 2009 and Spielvogel 2008). The system was also tried within the African economic landscape with different results; the opposite happened as economies that were once growing with high rates slumped down. It was indeed a western idea for a western economy. Some may argue that the strategy worked in Europe because it was created for that purpose.Unfortunately after the Second World War, the world was once again divided, this time along ideological lines; Capitalism versus Socialism. On e advocated for a market oriented economy while the other called for a strong state control to prevent the exigencies of the very same market. Europe was also divided along the same lines. Eventually Capitalists emerged victorious in 1989. This cemented the role of the dollar within the global Economy. The U. S. A dominated the Global economic scene; just as they intended soon after the formation of the Institutions.This has worked for years; the dollar has managed to give confidence and earn respect of economies in the world for quite some time. The dollar for quite some time was the only universally accepted exchange rate, it was the standard. Unfortunately this was also the mistake the system had (Spielvogel 2008). Over dependence on the dollar was not the ke y idea behind the founders of the system. I believe it was imposed to ensure the dominance of the U. S. A in the global system; they are the most powerful and everybody wanted to be allied to the West.This over reliance has over the years made the system shaky; the objectives were to ensure the stability of the global financial system. Unfortunately this was to be proven other wise with the occurrence of a second major global financial crisis; characterized by a weakened dollar and therefore instability within the financial system, a reminder of what happened when the system was over reliant on gold back in the 1920s and 1930s. This is therefore a proof that the Bretton Woods institutions are long over due for an update (Lechner 2009 and Veseth 2002).In conclusion, the Bretton Woods system was a great idea for the unification of the Global financial system; it has successfully seen the world united through globalization. The whole system is now interconnected and economies are depen dent. It has also seen the development of Europe successfully to what is seen today; the European Union. Unfortunately it has failed to ensure that the mistakes of the past are not repeated; the recent financial crisis was a repeat of the Great depression that lasted for almost a decade between 1929 to late 1930s.Therefore the strategy was a good idea but it needed the input of all economies and therefore interdependence among states and economies. Reference: Lechner Frank J. (2009). Globalization: The Making of a World Society. Chichester U. K; Malden MA: Willey-Blackwell. Mansbach R, W & Rhodes E, J. (2009). Global Politics in a Changing World: A Reader. 4th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Spielvogel Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization Alternate Volume: Since 1300. Wadsworth Pub Co. Veseth Michael (Ed). (2002). The Rise of Global Economy. London: Fitzroy DearBorn Publishers.

Asch Study Research Paper

Solomon Asch finally conducted the experiment in 1951 on a group of male participants. Asch created two cards, the first card had a line that the participants had to match up with another line on the second card, this card had three lines that the participants could choose from. Asch first gathered eight confederates, â€Å"actors posing as participants† (Pastorino, 512). All eight of these confederates where told to purposely say the obvious wrong answer. So asch took eight confederates and one participant and asked them which line on the second card was the same length as the line on the first card. The confederates went first so that the participant could hear their answer. After the confederates said their answer the participant was then supposed to give his answer. Seventy-four percent of the time the participant would conform to the confederates answer. Through this experiment Asch found immense information. Those who conformed first obviously showed disbelief, even with all the disbelief they still conformed. Almost three quarters of the people put under the group pressure conformed to the obvious false answer. In psychology this is the Asch Effect. The Asch Effect is â€Å"the influence of a group majority on the judgements of an individual† (Zimbardo, 571). Although the majority of the participants conformed to obvious wrong answer, there were some that stuck with their own beliefs. These people are called Heroes, â€Å"Heroes are people who are able to resist situational forces that overwhelm their peers and remain true to their personal values† (Zimbardo, 572). These type of people challenge the corrupt society and don’t go with the groups beliefs. As well as Heroes, there are Independents who may fall in disbelief of the others, but still go along with their own answers. Solomon Asch created a study to test the powers of conformity by designing a test consisted of line to find research and information needed when learning about conformity. Conformity is when someone adopts a group’s behavior, attitudes, and opinions just to fit in. There were many people who conformed to Asch’s study. Seventy-four percent of the participants put into the study conformed to the group’s false answers. Although the majority conformed there were other that didn’t conform to the answers of the group, these people were the Heroes and the Individuals. In conclusion the majority of the people put into this study conformed to the group’s answers. Panarchy. Solomon Asch : Opinions and Social Pressure (1955). Panarchy Panarchie Panarchia Panarquia. 2001-2010. Web. 16 Jan. 2011. lt;http://www. panarchy. org/asch/social. pressure. 1955. htmlgt;. Pastorino, Ellen, and Susann Doyle-Portillo. What Is Psychology? Australia: Thomson Wadsworth, 2009. Print. Zimbardo, Philip G. Psychology: AP* Edition with Discovery Psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn amp; Bacon, 2010. Print.

Research paper 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

1 - Research Paper Example In this experiment we would like to understand 2 primary things. Firstly, the physiological change induced by caffeine keeping in mind that the chemical is capable of altering heart rate and secondly, observes any behavioral changes in the organism if any. This research serves more than one purpose. Firstly, we will understand the toxicity of the chemical in shrimp and observe the affect on its life cycle. Shrimp is an important part of the marine ecosystem and food chain and if caffeine has any harmful effects on the organism there maybe consequent affects in the marine food web as well. Secondly, since research is mostly aimed at human welfare and we are aware that caffeine is non-toxic only up to a certain level this research would help determine the changes induced if human happened to consume shrimp that were loaded with caffeine. However, the most important thing is that we will understand clearly the consequence and possible consequence of polluting marine water system with effluents loaded with toxic chemicals. Caffeine is a stimulant and primarily affects the central nervous system and the heart. It causes an increase in the heart rate since the stimulant has an effect on the neurotransmitter and thereby alters the rate of the heart. Alongside this behavioral changes may also be induced in the organism which may be understood by keeping the organism under observation and noticing deviation from normal behavior. Reduction in normal activity is common response to an induced stress (Weiss,2013) and activity may be studies at larval or adult stage. Humans, are already exposed to caffeine but there is a concentration up to which the human body can tolerate the stimulant and metabolize it effectively. In case caffeine enters the body along with food there may be an increase in the intake of stimulant thereby causing effects on the health as well. Among

Research, Evidence and Nursing Practice Assignment

Research, Evidence and Nursing Practice - Assignment Example Conditions used to make comparisons included untapped, therapeutic taping protocol and neutral taping protocol. (3) Authors utilized within-subjects study design, which entailed subjecting 18 participants to the three conditions at random coupled with assessing pain and observed disability. (4) Research’s scope encompassed assessing the extent of pain in each case and disability whereby the latter comprised of hindrance to the necessary knee mobility. Knee’s mobility tests used were walking speed, stepping ability, rising time and go tests. (5) Research’s content avails adequate information helpful in managing Maude’s predicament, which in this case entails reducing pain. Therefore, therapeutic taping will be of great help to her not only through reducing pain but also in preventing knee’s swelling. (6) Limitations in this study embrace â€Å"carryover effects†, use of small cohort and inadequate interval period between the tests. (7) The stu dy concluded therapeutic taping was inexpensive strategy compared to numerous approaches used in managing of knee OA. Justification (8) The study offers adequate information regarding managing of knee pain and disability (Hinman, Bennell, Crossley & McConnell, 2003). ... es its remedies with other approaches used in treating and managing knee OA whereby the researchers conclude both Therapeutic knee tape and neutral tape are cheaper. The other reason considered in selecting this article was its inexpensive remedy strategy aimed at reducing pain, whereby the people irrespective of their status can adequately afford. Therefore, its contribution in the medical field will encompass equipping medical personnel with adequate knowledge concerning varied and cheaper ways, which they will advise their patients to embrace. This is especially in managing Knee OA among the victims whereby with necessary training ailing people can adequately execute therapeutic taping in their homes. This will reduce high chances of disability commonly associated with Knee OA especially among the old people who in most cases tend to prefer sedentary life like in Maude’s case. Therefore, practitioners after advocating therapeutic taping to the people with Knee OA will compe l them to be active through their relatives, hence reduce numerous chances of disability observed among people taking medicinal approaches. This is an essential intervention, which practitioners can combine with medicinal approaches in reducing pain experienced by Maude. In addition, despite the authors in this article citing certain limitations that may hinder effective testing under each condition, its analysis is meticulous. This is evident in the already analyzed tests and clear presentation of statistical data in form of tables and graphs bearing evidences of diverse remedies’ outcomes under study. (1) Roddy, E., Zhang, W. & Doharty, M. (2005). Aerobic walking or strengthening exercise for osteoarthritis of the knee? A systematic Review. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 64. 544- 548.

Causes of the Mexican-American War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Causes of the Mexican-American War - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that the present Texas – a land that was said to be similar to Germany in terms of size – was formerly a part of the Mexican Republic, until its residents, then known as Texicans or Texans, revolted against the Mexican government. Settlers from different parts of the United States were said to have populated Texas during the 1820’s up to the 1830’s, when the Mexican government encouraged them to reside in the northern part of Mexico which was then unpopulated. And in 1821, the first Anglo-American colony led by Stephen Fuller Austin was established in Texas. However, the settlers were not contented with the way the city government of Mexico was running the province. The Texans were furious with the plan of Mexico to bring the country under the control of a single authority. It further aggravated their anger when a government proclamation concerning the abolition of slavery was implemented.This study outlines that  the Texans w ere a kindred people whose natural place was under the American flag. For a third reason, they feared that Great Britain might intervene in Texas and try to establish a protectorate. And finally, pocket motives were at work. Northerners wished to sell farm products and manufactured goods in Texas; shipping owners saw that their vessels could make profitable voyages to Galveston; Yankee mill owners wished to have cheap Texas cotton spin. Many Southerners wanted to migrate and yet were unwilling to leave the American flag.

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 9

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - Essay Example the United States was in no way susceptible, but it had the task of defending its partners as well as bring to a stop the development of nuclear armaments (Ambrose, 1989). President Nixon had the same ideas and he based his goals in ensuring world peace is maintained. After his election into office, there was an increase from American citizens for American troops to be sent back home from foreign missions. Nixon promised American citizens that he will support American allies with resources but not man power. However, the process was delayed as protests became a daily scene in the streets on the United States. In providing a specific case scenario, the number of American troops who died in Vietnam reached 500, 000 (Dallek, 2007). This made citizens even more irritated by Nixon’s regime. Nixon however, launched vietnamisation which was a strategy to pull out American troops in the region, help build a Vietnamese military squad and provide them with weapons and financial resources. He succeeded in this particular quest as he was applauded for successfully ensuring peace in Vietnam and getting American troops back home. Nixon took over American during a time when the nations had a lot of enemies in terms of diplomatic relations. However, the nations also had significant allies Nixon was keen to retain (Ambrose, 1989). On many occasions involving warfare, Nixon was forced to use diplomatic efforts to be able to come up with lasting solutions. For instance, during the invasion of Arab countries in Israel, Nixon realized the significance of having good diplomatic relationships with the Arab countries (Dallek, 2007). Nixon was able to negotiate with Egypt and he convinced them to pull out in the war against Israel. Additionally, Nixon also used diplomatic efforts to solve the China-Pakistan war. In this occasion, Pakistan is an American ally and China a great ally to the Soviet. According to Parmet (1990) the diplomatic relationship between the Soviet and the United

Case Study (Master Degree in Health Psychology) Essay

Case Study (Master Degree in Health Psychology) - Essay Example The onset of this disease therefore is during childhood. Patients suffering from this type of diabetes are prone to the development of ketoacidocis and therefore insulin therapy is essential for the survival of the patient. It arises due to the loss of beta cell of the islets of Langerhans of the pancrease that are responsible for the production of insulin leading to reduction in insulin production. In some instances the term Insulin Dependant Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) can be used interchangeably with type I diabetes. Diabetes type I consists of almost 10% of all diabetic patients. Life adjustments programs including exercises and change of diet don't improve the condition because damage has already been caused. Type II diabetes is also referred to as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus often abbreviated as (NIDDM) it is often commonly reported in African Americans, Asian Americans and the aged populations. This type is often associated with obesity in this case the deposition of fat around the abdominal organs that are around the waste without subcutaneous fat make patients prone to development of insulin resistance. The onset of this condition is during adulthood and is characterized by hyperglycemia (increased blood glucose) as a result of low production of insulin from the pancrease and insulin resistance or overproduction of glucose for example during breakdown of glycogen. Insulin is important in the body as it enables the body to use the glucose obtained from diet to produce energy thus in most diabetic patients there is a general feeling of weakness due to lack of energy for the body. Lack of insulin can cause two main effects in the body first the body cells are starved of ener gy and secondly the increase in concentration of blood glucose may lead to damage of eyes and heart muscles. During insulin resistance the body cells do not respond to the presence of insulin in the blood. In a normal individual once food is taken in through the gut the macromolecules in the food are broken down by intestinal enzymes into small micro molecular units for example glucose that can be readily absorbed in the body. Diabetes is often as a result of lack of exercise and therefore in most cases associated with countries from the western or developed world. Normally type II diabetic patients are less prone to development of ketoacidosis however they are likely to develop non-ketoacidonic hypoglycemia which is quite dangerous. Type II diabetes can lead to organ damage an most notably the cardiovascular system. Diabetes type II often remain unnoticed for several years because its conditions are commonly mild however its long-term effects may be lethal and therefore necessitating frequent clinical checkups to detect the disease at an early stage and most importantly is important to make sure that the body is maintained healthy by doing lots of exercise. Analysis of the problem Imran, a middle aged man of forty years who recently went for a medical checkup, was found to be diabetic. He was diagnosed of having non-insulin depended diabetes which is commonly referred to as type II diabetes. As a

Select a Code of Conduct to Revise Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Select a Code of Conduct to Revise - Assignment Example In addition, the communication language in which the code of business conduct should convey the message should be understood by the employees (Waldmann, 2006). Corporate companies like Diageo and Coca-Cola prohibit their employees from taking for themselves or directing business opportunity to other people that business opportunity that the organization has turned down. This code of business conduct needs to be revised. This is because of the fact that if organizations like Coca -Cola are not interested with the business opportunity they should therefore provide the employees with the chance of taking up the challenge and provide the services needed. This should be allowed to provide the employees the chance to grow themselves. If an organization is not interested in a business opportunity, then it means that it is giving other people that opportunity. Therefore, why not give the same opportunity to the employees to empower them and make them have better income and advance their careers (Barth, 2003). However, this opportunity should not be discovered using corporate property or information. Diageo should ensure that employees should not use the organization’s resources, information or position for personal gain or competing with the firm. It may be hard to sometimes determine the line between personal and firm benefits. The best action to do is ask for permission for the use of any firm property or services that is not solely for the benefit of the organization. In addition, in order to protect the interests of an organization, it is important for companies to monitor and review all data and information contained on an employee’s company issued property. This is for the sole purpose of protecting the organization’s information from outsiders. Moreover, strict measures and discipline should be instilled to those violating the rules. In conclusion, it is important for organizations to have the code of business conduct as it serves as a

Google in China Essay Example for Free

Google in China Essay Google is the fastest growing Internet search engine company. Google’s mission is â€Å"to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.†(International Business: Competing in the Global marketplace, pg 148-149) They have a mantra of â€Å"Don’t be Evil.† Google started this mantra to be the main message to show consumers they would not compromise the integrity of its search results. This case reviews the situation under which Google was required to censor its content and chose to launch its new search engine site. The case explains the role of the Chinese government and its regulations in the Internet market which had a negative effect on Googles operations in China. In 2000, Google started a Chinese language service. This service was operated from the United States. Chinese authorities blocked the site in 2002 because China censors information to their citizens. This block surprised Google’s managers. This was a challenge the managers did not plan on. If they done their research of the Chinese Government and culture prior to launching the Chinese language service, they would have known the block would be inevitable and they could have tailored their service to the Chinese regulations, culture, and laws. Google knew China was an advantageous business and they would need to adapt their service in order for it to be acceptable and profitable. Google also had to move the Chinese operations to China. Operating from the United States caused slow connection speed and hinder their operation and growth. This was a good move because it enabled Google to employee Chinese citizens who would be able to help understand and adapt to the Chinese laws, regulations, and censorship demands. Google managers made a mistake by not researching their target market. However, they acted quickly in learning and correcting this mistake. Google still offered Chinese citizens a better search engine, but it was not without censorship. The Google search engine offers more results than its competitors, Yahoo, Microsoft’s MSN, and China’s own company, Baidu. Google states Chinese consumers will â€Å"get more information on their site, though not quite all of it.† (International Business: Competing in the Global marketplace, pg 148-149) In 2006, Google had 30 percent share of China’s internet search engines. Baidu had 40 percent. This left another 30 percent split between Yahoo and Microsoft’s MSN search engines. These percentages are good, especially when one considers Yahoo and Microsoft had entered the Chinese search engine market prior to Google. Baidu has several advantages over Google that are mostly associated with it being a Chinese based company, the search engine has â€Å"competence in pinpointing queries in the Chinese language† (Yin Yulin, 2010, p. 4). Government relations with China are precarious for businesses effectiveness. Google did not have a clear understanding of what they would be involved in. China has become more supported and self-assured due to its increasing economic significance. They are more reluctant to be pressed by Western governments or companies into changing its long term regulations and censorship. Because of this aspect, China does not yet comprehend global strategies and the importance of global public relations. This causes them to be more rigid in their international business dealings. All-in-all, Google has been able to grow successfully in the Chinese search engine market and maintain the number two spot (behind Baidu) in China despite their lack of early research on the Chinese culture, governmental regulations, and laws. References International Business. Competing in the Global Marketplace, Seventh Edition, Chapter 3: Differences in Culture ISBN: 9780073381343 Author: Charles W. L. Hill copyright  © 2009 McGraw-Hill, a business unit of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects

Construction Project Delay: Causes and Effects In this chapter, I will discuss types, causes and effects of delay of project in the construction industry. Besides that, I will also discuss the method to minimize the delays happening in construction industry 2.2 Type of Delay In construction industry, there are the categories of delays used in determining delay damage as shown in table 2.1 Figure 2.1 Types of Delay 2.2.1 Excusable delays Excusable delay as define a delay that is due to an unforeseeable event beyond the contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or the subcontractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s control. Usually, based on common general provisions in public agency specifications, delay resulting from the following events would be considered excusable such as fires, floods, owner-directed changes, errors and omissions in the contract drawing, unusually severe weather and etc. Excusable delays can be further classified into excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation. 2.2.1.1 Excusable with compensation Compensation delays are caused by the owner or the owners agents. An example of this would be the drawings late release from the owners architect. An excusable, compensable delay normally leads to a schedule extension and exposes the owner to financial damages claimed by the contractor. In this scenario, the contractor incurs additional indirect costs for both extended field office and home office overhead and unabsorbed home office overhead. 2.2.1.2 Excusable delays without compensation Non-compensable delays are caused by third parties or incidents beyond the control of both the owner and the contractor. Examples typically include acts of God, unusual weather, strikes, fires, acts of government in its sovereign capacity, etc. In this case, the contractor is normally entitled to claim extension of time but no compensation for delay damages 2.2.2 Non-excusable delays Non-excusable delays are cause by lack of performance of the contractor on the construction project. This delay can be cause by underestimates of productivity, improper project planning and scheduling, poor site management and supervision, wrong construction methods, equipment breakdowns, unreliable subcontractors or suppliers. Therefore, it is contractor responsibilities to continue their work with no entitlement to claim for extension of time or delay damages until they completed the project. For instance, a contractor failure to provide an adequate material to completed their job. 2.2.3 Concurrent Delay Concurrent delay is a problem that happening on most of the construction industry project. This issue arises when two or more delaying event at the same time in a project cannot complete on time. In this situation, both owner and contractor are responsible for the delay. Commonly concurrent delays which involve any two or more excusable delays result in extension of time. When excusable with compensation and non-excusable delays are concurrent, an extension of time can be issued or the delay can be distribution between the owner and the contractor. Concurrent delay can be categories in three types of delays: If excusable and non-excusable delays occur concurrently, the contractor only to allow claim for extension of time: If excusable with compensation and excusable without compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitle to claim extension of time but no delay damages: If two excusable with compensation delays occur concurrently, the contractor is entitled to claim extension of time and delay damages. For instance, a concurrent delay would be if the owner failure to give more detail regarding either using ceramic tile or homogeneous tile for toilet floor finishes. But at the same time contractor made with own decision and using ceramic tile for toilet floor finishes but actually owner plan using homogeneous tile. In this situation, the contractor cannot claim for damages. It is because contractor is not follow owner instruction but he can claim for extension of time with owner failure to give more detail of drawing 2.3 Causes of delays Figure 2.2 Causes of delays Based on the researched done through by journal, books, and some other reference. Project delay can be causes by a lot of parties which is shown in the Figure 2.2. They are include client, contractor, consultant, labour, material, equipment, financial and some external causes. 2.3.1 Caused of Client Related Delays Figure 2.3 Factors of client related delays 2.3.1.1 Lack of experience of client in construction According to Koushki, et al. (2005) identified factors of lack of experiences of client in construction project have high influence to the causes of delays. Some of the project delay cause by client due to not enough experience especially fresh developer. Most of the time, client facing a problem and do not know how to solve it immediately because of no experience. During client finding the way to solve the problem, some of the work could not progress. Finally, the whole project delay because of some particular work delay. 2.3.1.2 Change order According to Odeh and Battaineh (2002) mentioned the factors of change orders that contribute to causes of delaysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Client always change the design during the construction period, during the same time that will affect whole project delay. It is because contractor cannot carry out his work until the latest drawing issue by architect. Consequently contractor cannot be done within the contract period. Most of the current project delay because of change order by client. For instance, a project almost complete but client change certain part of design and instruct contractor carry out the additional work. After done the whole project, the contractor found out was exceeding contract period. 2.3.1.3 Client interference According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors client interference that contributes to causes of delays in construction project. Some of the client instruct contractor to carry out additional work without ask architect promise. During the contractor carry out additional work, some of the work could not progress and it will be delay immediately. On the other hand, client do not follow the procedure such as did not mention architect issue an architect instruction. Finally it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.2 Causes of contractor related delay Figure 2.4 Factors of contractor related delay 2.3.2.1 Inadequate contractor experience Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributor to causes of delays. Long, ET al. (2004) mentioned the factors of inadequate contractor experience that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of inadequate contractor experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the delay projects are facing a problem during construction period. But at the same time contractor could not solved the problem immediately because of no experience. During the contractor finding method to solve the problem, some of the works totally stop because of that problem. After the problem was solved, those work keeping continue but run out from the schedule. Finally, the whole project will influence delay. 2.3.2.2 Inaccurate time estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of inaccurate time estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Time estimates are important as inputs into other technique used to manage and structure for all projects. An inaccurate time estimation technique may cause a project delay. For instance, in some delay project, the contractor do not allowed time for some common problem always happen during the construction stage such as breakdown of equipment, miss deliveries by supplies, accidents and emergencies and so on. Because of this problem the actual time will run out from the estimated. So, the whole project could be facing delay. 2.3.2.3 Inaccurate of cost estimate According to Long, et al. (2004) also mentioned that, the factors of inaccurate cost estimating that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Construction estimating errors can be very expensive and embarrassing. Inaccurate of cost estimate contribute a lot of cause such as wrong measurements from contract drawing, using incorrect units of measure, material improperly priced and the most common mistakes in arithmetic . Sometime contractor because of inaccurate of cost estimate measurement again for that particular work. Finally, due to re-measurement time some of the work will influence delay and it will also affect whole project to delay. 2.3.2.4 Poor site management and supervision Battaineh (2002) studied that, the factors of poor site management and supervision as contributors to causes of delays. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of poor site management and supervision that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the project team a lack of management and supervision due team member without any experience and skill such as hire person who are fresh graduate. Once they facing problem but do not know how to solve it. Besides that, some of the supervisor did not cooperation with their team member due to lack of communicated. Finally, because of cannot solve the problem immediately the whole project influence delay. 2.3.3 Causes of Consultant Related Delays Figure 2.5 Factors of consultant related delays 2.3.3.1 Inadequate consultant experience According to Long, et al. (2004) studied the factors of inadequate consultant experience as contributors to causes of delays. In construction industry, they are many consultants carry out their work without experience. Besides that, there are many causes of a consultant without experience which include different site conditions, mismanagement and maladministration, site access restrictions, defective plan and/or specification. For instances, some of the architects only concentrated in certain part of building and do not have any experience in other type. Once architect design on that particular type of building without experiences, he will facing a lot of mistake and no ideas during design and because of this architect will delay issue the drawing. Finally, the works cannot process and it will affect the whole project delay. 2.3.3.2 Poor design and delay in design According to Ogunlana, et al.(1996) mentioned the factors of poor design and delay in design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. Design is every important to any project, without good design the whole project will influence delay. It is because in a project if facing poor design that will facing demolish and rebuilt again. This problem happens because of the designer lack of experience. For instance, an architect designs a column in the middle of classroom. Once the contractor without any experience and construct the work exactly shown in the drawing. Finally 2.3.3.3 Incomplete drawing and detail design Long, et al. (2004) identified the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of incomplete drawing and detail design that contribute to causes of delays in construction project. During construction, the contractor is carrying out the work but because of drawing is unclear and none very detail shown in the drawing. He could not continue the work with problem, so the works have to stop immediately until get more detail of that particular drawing from consultant responds. Because of without detail drawing the work could not be progress, so it will affect the tat particular work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.4 Causes of labour related delays Figure 2.6 Factors of labour related delays 2.3.4.1 Labour supply Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factors of slow labor supply that contribute to causes of delays. Odeh and Bataineh (2002) in their research identified à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the factors of labor supply as contributors to causes of delays. Besides material, the labour also consider as major source in the construction industry. Generally, labour are categories into two groups such as skilled workers and unskilled workers. In construction industry without labour project could not run. For instance, during construction, materials are ready to but no worker carrying out the work. During the same time because of no worker to progress of work, the project will confront project delay. 2.3.4.2 Shortage of skilled worker According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) mentioned the factor of shortage of skill labor is the most important factor that contributed to causes of delays. Skilled worker is a worker who has some special skill, knowledge and ability in his job and also gets highest pay such as plasterer, carpenter, painter, and concreter. Those skilled workers are learning the skills on the job. In construction, some contractors do not hire skilled workers because of higher labour cost and he employs some unskilled workers. At the same time skilled workers do not want get the job from the contractor with lower labour cost. Finally the unskilled workers could not complete the work on time. So, because of shortage of skilled worker affect whole project delay. 2.3.4.3 Labor of productivity According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factor of labor productivity having high influence to causes of delays. Labor of productivity; generally define as output per labour hour. There are many factors that influence on the labour productivity. One of the factors is workers experience, labour with high experience and high skills in field leads to high performance at workplace. Besides that, attitude also will affect productivity of labour. For instance, a worker can lay one meter square per hour but because of lazy. Finally he using three hours to finish laid the brick wall. Because of this factor, the progress work delay and it will also influence the whole project delay. 2.3.5 Causes of Material related Delay Figure 2.7 Factors of material related delay 2.3.5.1 Shortage of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that, factor shortage of construction material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of shortage of material as a factor to causes of delay. Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) studied that factors shortage of material as contributors that contribute to causes of delays. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) identified the factor of shortage of material that contribute to causes of delays. Material shortage is a potential source of construction delay. The major causes of material shortage is demand exceed supply. In construction have a lot type of material and the three main courses are cement, formwork and steel bar. Besides that, material is one of the main sources in construction industry. It is because without material project cannot construct. If a project facing the material shortage problem will be delay. For instance, a project having shortage ceramic tiles even though the labours ready for tiling. In this situatio n, the project will facing delay project. 2.3.5.2 Late delivery of materials Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of late delivery of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of late delivery of material that contribute to causes of delays. Late delivery of material as a supplier fault due to high market demand; however the long procedure of the purchasing order from head office was complained. In construction, it factor is similar to the material shortage such as the labour ready for work but no material to do their work. Once contractor cannot receive the material on time that will be delay work and it will also affect project delay. For example, workers want to install the windows but without frame because of late delivery to site. So, the work will be delay and it will affect project delay. 2.3.5.3 Poor quality of construction materials Koushki, et al. (2005) mentioned that factor poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of poor quality of material as a factor to causes of delay. Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) studied the factor of poor quality of material that contribute to causes of delays. Poor quality of material is construct building with using poor quality of material. The contractor has intention to cheat owner to earn more profit by change the quality of material such as concrete. For instance, a contractor cast a column with using Y 20 steel bar but actual in contract drawing is Y 25. After site staff done the inspection for this column and found that the steel bar inside column is Y 20 and ask contractor demolish the column to rebuild. In this case, time taken to rebuild the column will also affect project delay. 2.3.5.4 Escalation of material prices Ogunlana, et al. (1996) identified the factor of escalation of material prices as a factor to causes of delay. Wiguna and Scoot (2005) studied the factor of escalation of material prices was one factor that contribute to causes of delays. Escalation of material prices will cause shortage material in construction. It is because the market rate is keeping increasing. Some of the contractor does not buy the expensive material. During same time, the construction without material cannot run so the project will influence the project delay. For instance, a contractor because of material cost of market demands higher and does not make any order for material until material shortage. Finally, the construction cannot run without material and it will affect delay project also. 2.3.6 Causes of Equipment Related Delays Figure 2.8 Factors of Equipment related delays 2.3.6.1 Insufficient number of equipment According to Ogunlana, et al. (1998) identified the factors of insufficient numbers of equipment is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction stage, contractors are facing not enough machinery to produce work. It is because some of the contractors do not have a large capital to purchase that machinery due to higher cost. Once the projects carry out with not enough machinery, it will influence whole project delay. For instance, there are two works to be done by using towel crane but in site only one towel crane available. Finally, two of work could not be done at the same time due to not enough towel cranes. 2.3.6.2 Frequent equipment breakdown McCaffer (1998) studied the factors of equipment breakdown as contributors to causes of delays. Ogunlana, et al. (1998) mentioned the factor of frequent equipment breakdown is the most significant factors that contribute to causes of delays. In construction industry, some of the machinery always breakdown due to improper using by worker such as do not follow the instruction. For instance, machinery only can support for five hundred kilograms of material but during worker using that machinery and his carry out six hundred kilograms of material. Finally, the machinery will breakdown. Once machinery breakdown, the work will be stop immediately and affect some work delay. Finally, because of machinery breakdown the whole project will also influence delay. 2.3.6.3 Shortage of Equipment Parts According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factor of shortage of equipment parts that contribute to causes of delays. After machinery breakdown, the technical carry out the repair work for the breakdown of equipment. During the same time, some part of machinery none have stock in market. Because of no spare part to repair the machinery, some of the works facing stop progress immediately. Consequently, it will influence whole project to be delay. 2.3.7 Causes of Financial Related Delays Figure 2.9 Factors of Financial related delays 2.3.7.1 Clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Chan and Kumaraswamy (1996) identified the factors of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties as contributor to causes of delays. During the construction, client will face some financial problem arise from unanticipated emergencies or financial mismanagement such as global financial crisis. Besides that, a client proposes a new development without borrow term loan or bridging loan from the bank. On the other hand, improper cost planning is a most serious problem for those clients facing in current delay project. For instance, during pre-construction stage a client do not planning cost properly and he will facing a lot of problem in construction stage such as no enough capital to pay contractor payment. Finally, because of contractor did not receive payment to influence whole project delay. 2.3.7.2 Delay payment to suppliers/subcontractor According to Abd Majid and McCaffer (1998) mentioned the factors of inadequate fund allocation and delay payment to subcontractor/suppliers as contributor to causes of delays in construction project. Due to sub- contractor do not take their responsibility to done the work on time. The contractor will delay the payment until they complete the job. But at the same time, the sub-contractor refuse to work because of not yet receive payment. As a consequently, the whole project will be influence delay due to sub-contractor refuse to work. 2.3.7.3 Contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties According to Ogunlana, et al. (1996) studied the factors of contractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial difficulties having high influence to causes of delays. Poor financial management has been known as one of the factors why certain project cannot complete within contract period. Because of contractor lack of experience and could not manage their capital properly. On the other hand, because of delay payment by client contractor not enough money to cover up all sub-contractors and suppliers payment. Finally, the sub-contractor and suppliers refuse to work and supply material to the site and because of this factor the whole will influence delay. 2.3.8 Causes of External Related Delays Figure 2.10 Factors of external related delays 2.3.8.1 Weather condition Odeh and Battaineh (2002) identified the factors of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays. Long, et al. (2004) mentioned factors weather condition as factors ofexternal related delays. AL-Momani (2000) studied the factor of weather condition as contributors to causes of delays in construction project. During the construction period, weather is a factor to influence the whole project delay. It because weather condition that interfere with planned activities. Some activities can process but other cannot. For instances, during the worker cast the ground floor slab, but because of raining that particular work to be delay. 2.3.8.2 Slow site clearance According to Long, et al. (2004) identified factors of slow site clearance as factors of external related delays. During begin of construction stage, the responsibility party should have to carry out their work for site clearance immediately. Without clearance the site construction work cannot process. In some delay project found that, the third party did not take their responsibility to finish the site clearance within the period. Consequently, the whole project delay because of site clearance works delay. 2.4 Effect of Delays According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) identified the effects of construction delays on project delivery in Nigerian construction industry. They also said that the six major effects of delays follow by rank which include time overrun, cost overrun, dispute, arbitration, litigation, and total abandonment as shown in the Table 2.11 Effects of Delay Rank Time overrun 1 Cost overrun 2 Dispute 3 Arbitration 4 Litigation 5 Total Abandonment 6 Source : Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) Table 2.11 The effect of delays 2.4.1 Time overrun Time overrun it mean contractor could not carry out their work within contract period. In generally, time overrun can be categories into two group which include excusable delays and non-excusable. Once the project facing time overrun, it will affect the progress of work cannot finish on time. Besides that, the fault party will take the responsibility to pay the relevant parties for damages because of delay. For instance, during the project almost completed, but at the same time contractor because of exceptionally implement weather cannot completed the project within contract period. In this situation the contractor entitle to claim extension of time. On the other hand, if that contractor cannot complete the work within contract period due to his own fault. So the contractor no entitle to claim extension of time and he need to pay liquated damages. As stated in Persatuan Arkitek Malaysia form 2006 (PAM form 2006), which certain clauses stating about the damages by employer due to this event. It stated that in clauses below. 2.3.1.1 Clause 22.1 Liquidated Damage and Certificate of Non-Completion If the contractor fails to complete the works by the Completion Date, and the architect is of the opinion that the same ought reasonably so to have been completed, the architect shall issue a certificate of Non-completion. Upon the issuance of the certificate of Non-Completion the contractor shall pay or allow to the Employer a sum calculated at the rate stated in the Appendix as Liquidated Damages for the period from the Completion Date to the Date of Practical Completion. The Employer may recover such sum from the Performance Bond. The Employer shall inform the contractor in writing of such deduction or such debt due to from the contractor. The imposition of Liquated Damages by the Employer shall not be taken into account by the Architect in the issuance of payment certificates and Final Certificate, and is not subject to the set-off procedures under clause 30.4 and adjudication. 2.3.1.2 Clause 23.1 Submission of notice and particulars for extension of time If the Contractor is of the opinion that the completion of the Work is or will be delayed beyond the completion Date by any of the Relevant Event stated in Clause 23.8, he may apply for an extension of time provided always that 2.3.1.3 Clause 23.8 Relevant Events Exceptionally implement weather 2.4.2 Cost overrun During construction stages, the client and contractor always facing of cost overrun. Cost overrun  is an unexpected  cost  incurred in excess of a budgeted amount, due to  cost underestimation. Cost overrun is related to time overrun, once a project cannot be done in time, it will also affect the cost of project over budget. Commonly, cost overrun always happen due to contractor own fault such as inaccurate of cost estimate and he need to take responsibility to pay owner loss and expense. For instance, a contractor because of improper cost planning due to cost overrun. Finally, the owner set of his loss and expense from the contractor interim payment. 2.4.3 Dispute In construction industry, some of project delay because of dispute between contractual parties such as client, consultants, contractor and some relevant parties. Those disputes because of client failure make payment to the contractor. Once dispute happen, the relevant parties will go through with mediation. The mediator will make a decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision made by mediator, the parties will appeal the decision with arbitrator. If both parties accept the decision and the fault parties will take responsibility to pay damages for project delay. 2.4.4 Arbitration In current delay project, some of the contractual parties do not accept the mediator decision and they appeal in arbitration. Arbitrator will also make the decision to solve the problem. But if one of the parties does not accept the decision again made by Arbitrator, they still can appeal the decision in litigation. 2.4.5 Litigation In some delay project, the relevant parties because of still do not accept with the arbitrator decision. They are appeal the result in litigation which is dispute resolution in the courts. In litigation, the parties have a trial either by a court alone or by jury. If those parties are not satisfied judgment again, then they can appeal again if they have any new evidence to proof their right. But one the parties accept with the judgment, the faulty of parties need take responsibility to pay the penalty 2.4.6 Total abandonment Total abandonment it means the whole project stop immediately because of client facing financial difficulties. Some of the current delay project totally abandoned because of clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s or contractor problem which include clients bankruptcy, contractor run away, poor marketing and sales strategies and so on. The effect of project totally abandoned will affect many parties such as contractual parties which include contractor, consultant, sub-contractor, supplier and some other relevant parties. Besides those parties, the purchasers will also suffer in cost damages due to project abandoned. 2.5 Methods of minimizing construction delays According to Nguyen, et al. (2004), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“studied the factors that can be applied as a method of minimizing of construction delays as follows: competent project manager; frequent progress meeting; accurate initial cost estimates; accurate initial time estimates; awarding bids to the right/experience consultant and contractor.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction stage, a client should employ a depth knowledge project manager to organize a good project team member to progress the work. Besides that, the project team member should be always discussing with the problem having during the site progress. On the other hand, contractor should be employs some employee with experience such as quantity surveyor. So that, during the time or cost estimate they can add on some unforeseen event to avoid the cost and time overrun. Furthermore, the developer should be hire some experience consultant and contractor.iot is because once they facing problem, they can refer previous project to so lve the problem immediately. So, the project can process with smoothly. According to Aibinu and Jagboro (2002), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“identified two methods to minimize or if possible eliminate time overrun were: acceleration of site activities, and contingency allowance.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During construction stages, the contractor should carry out his responsibility to make sure the work progress can complete in time. If found that work progress are not equal to the estimate schedule. The contractor may carry out with acceleration such as hire additional worker. Besides that, the client may allow contractor standby some extra cost for unforeseen event such as accidents. According to Koushki, et al. (2005), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“revealed that the minimization of time delays and cost overruns would require: ensure adequate and available source of finance until project completion; ensure timely delivery of materials.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? During pre-construction, a client may prepare a good cash flow within the contract period. Once the client does not enough money to cover up construction cost, he can borrow a term loan or bridging loan from the bank to cover the cost until the whole project completed. It will avoid project delay due to client not enough capital. Besides that, the contractors make sure that material are order with a reliable suppliers and can receive it on time. Acco